Russia, the world’s largest country by land area, has a long and complex history of geopolitics. From the Tsarist Empire to the Soviet Union, and now as a post-Soviet state under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, Russia’s geopolitical ambitions have remained central to its foreign policy and global influence. Over the past two decades, Russia has been working to assert itself as a global power, challenging the West, particularly the United States and the European Union, while seeking to reassert its dominance in the post-Soviet space and beyond. This article explores Russia’s geopolitical ambitions, the strategies it employs, and the challenges it faces as it seeks to redefine its role on the global stage.
Historical Context: From Empire to Superpower
Russia’s geopolitical ambitions are deeply rooted in its history. The country’s vast size and geographical position, spanning Europe and Asia, have made it a major player in global politics for centuries. The Russian Empire (1721–1917) sought to expand its borders through military conquest, particularly into Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe. The collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 led to the formation of the Soviet Union, a superpower that rivaled the United States during the Cold War and played a central role in shaping the global order.
After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, Russia experienced a period of political and economic instability. The loss of its superpower status and the disintegration of its sphere of influence left Russia feeling vulnerable. However, under President Vladimir Putin, who came to power in 2000, Russia has been steadily rebuilding its global influence, often challenging the existing international order dominated by Western powers.
Key Geopolitical Ambitions of Russia
1. Reasserting Influence in the Post-Soviet Space
One of Russia’s primary geopolitical goals has been to restore its influence over the countries that were once part of the Soviet Union. These post-Soviet republics, including Ukraine, Georgia, and several Central Asian nations, are strategically important for Russia’s security, economy, and regional dominance.
Russia views the former Soviet states as part of its natural sphere of influence and has been wary of Western influence in the region. The expansion of NATO and the European Union eastward, particularly the potential membership of countries like Ukraine and Georgia, has been a major source of tension between Russia and the West. Russia perceives this as a direct threat to its security and regional dominance.
In 2014, Russia took bold action to maintain its influence over Ukraine by annexing Crimea following a controversial referendum. This move was widely condemned by the international community, leading to economic sanctions and a severe deterioration of relations with the West. Russia’s support for separatist groups in Eastern Ukraine has further complicated the situation, leading to an ongoing conflict in the Donbas region.
Beyond Ukraine, Russia has sought to maintain strong relationships with other former Soviet republics, such as Belarus, Armenia, and Kazakhstan, through organizations like the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) and the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). These organizations help Russia strengthen its political and economic ties in the region and prevent the further encroachment of Western institutions.
2. Challenging Western Hegemony and the Liberal International Order
Since the end of the Cold War, the United States and its allies in Europe have dominated global politics. Russia, however, has sought to challenge this Western-led order, positioning itself as a counterweight to U.S. influence and promoting a multipolar world where no single power, especially the U.S., dominates global governance.
Under President Putin, Russia has pursued a policy of resisting Western influence in both military and ideological terms. The Ukraine crisis, the Syrian civil war, and Russia’s involvement in cyber warfare are examples of Moscow’s efforts to assert itself against the West. By supporting regimes that oppose U.S. interests, such as Bashar al-Assad in Syria, Russia has positioned itself as a key global actor willing to confront U.S. and European policies, often aligning with other adversaries of the West, such as Iran and North Korea.
Russia has also used hybrid warfare tactics, including disinformation campaigns, cyberattacks, and support for populist and far-right movements in Europe and the U.S., to destabilize Western democracies and weaken NATO cohesion. These efforts are aimed at undermining the liberal international order and promoting a more authoritarian model of governance that Russia advocates as a viable alternative to Western democracy.
3. Building Alliances with Non-Western Powers
In recent years, Russia has sought to expand its geopolitical influence by strengthening alliances with non-Western powers. China is perhaps the most significant partner in this regard. The China-Russia relationship has deepened through cooperation in military, economic, and political spheres. Both countries share concerns about U.S. global dominance and are working together to challenge the existing international order.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), a regional security and political organization founded by China and Russia, serves as a platform for cooperation among Central Asian countries, India, and others. The organization focuses on counterterrorism, economic development, and regional security, and provides a counterbalance to U.S.-led alliances in the region.
Russia has also strengthened ties with other countries such as India, Turkey, and various countries in the Middle East, including Egypt and Saudi Arabia, through strategic partnerships and arms sales. These relationships are often based on shared interests in security, energy, and counterterrorism, and provide Russia with a broader network of influence outside the Western sphere.
4. Maintaining Military Power and Nuclear Deterrence
Russia’s military capabilities remain a cornerstone of its geopolitical strategy. As a nuclear-armed state with one of the largest military forces in the world, Russia views its military power as both a tool of deterrence and a means of projecting influence globally. The Russian Armed Forces have been modernized in recent years, with advanced weaponry such as hypersonic missiles, advanced fighter jets, and ballistic missile defense systems.
Russia’s military presence in regions such as Syria, Eastern Ukraine, and the Arctic reflects its strategic priorities and its desire to secure its borders, extend its influence, and protect its interests. The Kremlin has also used military force in Georgia (2008) and Crimea (2014) to achieve its geopolitical goals and reinforce its status as a regional power.
Russia’s nuclear arsenal remains a critical component of its military doctrine. The doctrine emphasizes the use of nuclear weapons as a deterrent against potential threats, particularly from NATO or the U.S. This has led to growing concerns in the West about the potential for nuclear escalation, especially as Russia has shown willingness to challenge international norms in the pursuit of its goals.
Russia’s Geopolitical Strategies and Tools
Russia employs a variety of strategies to achieve its geopolitical ambitions:
1. Energy Diplomacy
Russia is one of the world’s largest producers of oil and natural gas, and it uses energy exports as a powerful tool of geopolitical influence. Gazprom, the state-owned energy giant, supplies natural gas to many European countries, making Europe highly dependent on Russian energy. Russia has used this leverage in the past to exert political pressure on countries like Ukraine and Poland by manipulating energy supplies or increasing gas prices.
At the same time, Russia is diversifying its energy export routes and customers, including increasing energy ties with China and other Asian countries. The Power of Siberia gas pipeline, completed in 2019, is a prime example of Russia’s efforts to strengthen its energy partnership with China.
2. Cyber Warfare and Information Operations
Russia has increasingly relied on cyber warfare and information operations to advance its geopolitical agenda. The Russian government has been accused of interfering in the political processes of several countries, including the 2016 U.S. presidential election, by using cyberattacks, hacking, and disinformation campaigns to sway public opinion and destabilize democracies.
In addition to cyberattacks, Russia has actively used state-controlled media outlets like RT and Sputnik to spread propaganda and promote narratives that support Russian interests while discrediting Western governments and institutions.
3. Covert Operations and Proxy Conflicts
Russia has also used covert operations and proxy conflicts to achieve its geopolitical goals without direct military engagement. In Ukraine, Russia has provided military and financial support to separatist groups in the Donbas region. Similarly, in Syria, Russia has supported the regime of Bashar al-Assad in its fight against opposition forces, securing its influence in the Middle East.
Through these proxy conflicts, Russia seeks to expand its influence in key regions without provoking direct confrontation with the West. These actions also help Russia maintain its strategic alliances with countries like Iran and Hezbollah, while challenging U.S. and NATO influence in these areas.
Challenges Facing Russia’s Geopolitical Ambitions
While Russia has made significant strides in asserting its global influence, it faces several challenges in pursuing its geopolitical ambitions:
- Sanctions and Economic Isolation: Western sanctions, particularly in response to Russia’s actions in Ukraine and its annexation of Crimea, have hurt the Russian economy, limiting access to global markets and advanced technology.
- Internal Instability: Russia’s domestic challenges, including economic inequality, political repression, and social unrest, could undermine its ability to project power abroad. Public dissatisfaction with the government may eventually affect Russia’s foreign policy.
- Growing Rivalry with China: While Russia and China have